Coronavirus (COVID-19) and the Human Immunity: A Review
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.54097/hset.v14i.1833Abstract
The coronavirus (COVID-19) exhibits a wide diversity of clinical manifestations due to the close association between the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and the host immune mechanisms. SARS-CoV-2 viral clearance counts on adaptive immune responses, while innate immune populations such as dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages have crucial roles in killing infected cells. Innate immune cells have vast pattern recognition receptors to induce different signaling pathways. Adaptive immune populations, including helper T cells (CD4+ T lymphocytes), cytotoxic T cells (CD8+ T lymphocytes), and B lymphocytes (sources of antibodies), can control infectious viruses to protect human bodies. In this review, how do the innate and adaptive immune systems recognize and respond to the invasion of the SARS-CoV-2 will be discussed.
Downloads
References
Covid-19 map. Johns Hopkins Coronavirus Resource Center. (n.d.). Retrieved September 2021, from https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/map.html
Fehr, A. R., & Perlman, S. (2015). Coronaviruses: An overview of their replication and pathogenesis. Coronaviruses, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2438-7_1
Diamond, M. S., & Kanneganti, T.-D. (2022). Innate immunity: The first line of defense against SARS-COV-2. Nature Immunology, 23(2), 165–176. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41590-021-01091-0
Konno, Y., Kimura, I., Uriu, K., Fukushi, M., Irie, T., Koyanagi, Y., Sauter, D., Gifford, R. J., Nakagawa, S., & Sato, K. (2020). SARS-COV-2 orf3b is a potent interferon antagonist whose activity is increased by a naturally occurring elongation variant. Cell Reports, 32(12), 108185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2020.108185
Kanneganti, T. D. (2020). Intracellular innate immune receptors: Life inside the cell. Immunological Reviews, 297(1), 5–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/imr.12912
Christgen, S., & Kanneganti, T.-D. (2020). Inflammasomes and the fine line between defense and disease. Current Opinion in Immunology, 62, 39–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coi.2019.11.007
Kayagaki, N., Kornfeld, O. S., Lee, B. L., Stowe, I. B., O’Rourke, K., Li, Q., Sandoval, W., Yan, D., Kang, J., Xu, M., Zhang, J., Lee, W. P., McKenzie, B. S., Ulas, G., Payandeh, J., Roose-Girma, M., Modrusan, Z., Reja, R., Sagolla, M., … Dixit, V. M. (2021). NINJ1 mediates plasma membrane rupture during lytic cell death. Nature, 591(7848), 131–136. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03218-7
Campbell, G. R., To, R. K., Hanna, J., & Spector, S. A. (2021). SARS-COV-2, SARS-COV-1, and HIV-1 derived ssrna sequences activate the NLRP3 inflammasome in human macrophages through a non-classical pathway. IScience, 24(4), 102295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2021.102295
Zheng, M., Karki, R., Williams, E. P., Yang, D., Fitzpatrick, E., Vogel, P., Jonsson, C. B., & Kanneganti, T.-D. (2021). TLR2 senses the SARS-COV-2 envelope protein to produce inflammatory cytokines. Nature Immunology, 22(7), 829–838. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41590-021-00937-x
Theobald, S. J., Simonis, A., Georgomanolis, T., Kreer, C., Zehner, M., Eisfeld, H. S., Albert, M. C., Chhen, J., Motameny, S., Erger, F., Fischer, J., Malin, J. J., Gräb, J., Winter, S., Pouikli, A., David, F., Böll, B., Koehler, P., Vanshylla, K., … Rybniker, J. (2021). Long‐lived macrophage reprogramming drives Spike protein‐mediated inflammasome activation in COVID‐19. EMBO Molecular Medicine, 13(8). https://doi.org/10.15252/emmm.202114150
Yang, D., Geng, T., Harrison, A. G., & Wang, P. (2021). Differential roles of rig-i-like receptors in SARS-COV-2 infection. https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.02.10.430677
Thorne, L. G., Reuschl, A. K., Zuliani‐Alvarez, L., Whelan, M. V., Turner, J., Noursadeghi, M., Jolly, C., & Towers, G. J. (2021). SARS‐Cov‐2 sensing by rig‐i and MDA5 links epithelial infection to macrophage inflammation. The EMBO Journal, 40(15). https://doi.org/10.15252/embj.2021107826
Loo, Y.-M., & Gale, M. (2011). Immune signaling by rig-I-like receptors. Immunity, 34(5), 680–692. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2011.05.003
14 Horner, S. M., Liu, H. M., Park, H. S., Briley, J., & Gale, M. (2011). Mitochondrial-associated endoplasmic reticulum membranes (MAM) form innate immune synapses and are targeted by hepatitis C virus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(35), 14590–14595. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1110133108
Stark, G. R., & Darnell, J. E. (2012). The Jak-STAT pathway at Twenty. Immunity, 36(4), 503–514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2012.03.013
Wack, A., Terczyńska-Dyla, E., & Hartmann, R. (2015). Guarding the frontiers: The biology of type III interferons. Nature Immunology, 16(8), 802–809. https://doi.org/10.1038/ni.3212
Liu, G., & Zhao, Y. (2007). Toll-like receptors and immune regulation: Their direct and indirect modulation on regulatory CD4+ CD25+T cells. Immunology, 122(2), 149–156. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2567.2007.02651.x
Akira, S., & Takeda, K. (2004). Toll-like receptor signalling. Nature Reviews Immunology, 4(7), 499–511. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri1391
Sette, A., & Crotty, S. (2021). Adaptive immunity to SARS-COV-2 and COVID-19. Cell, 184(4), 861–880. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2021.01.007
Sekine, T., Perez-Potti, A., Rivera-Ballesteros, O., Strålin, K., Gorin, J.-B., Olsson, A., Llewellyn-Lacey, S., Kamal, H., Bogdanovic, G., Muschiol, S., Wullimann, D. J., Kammann, T., Emgård, J., Parrot, T., Folkesson, E., Rooyackers, O., Eriksson, L. I., Henter, J.-I., Sönnerborg, A., … Unge, C. (2020). Robust T cell immunity in convalescent individuals with asymptomatic or mild COVID-19. Cell, 183(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.08.017
Crotty, S. (2019). T Follicular Helper Cell Biology: A decade of Discovery and diseases. Immunity, 50(5), 1132–1148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2019.04.011
Rydyznski Moderbacher, C., Ramirez, S. I., Dan, J. M., Grifoni, A., Hastie, K. M., Weiskopf, D., Belanger, S., Abbott, R. K., Kim, C., Choi, J., Kato, Y., Crotty, E. G., Kim, C., Rawlings, S. A., Mateus, J., Tse, L. P., Frazier, A., Baric, R., Peters, B., … Crotty, S. (2020). Antigen-specific adaptive immunity to SARS-COV-2 in acute COVID-19 and associations with age and disease severity. Cell, 183(4). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.09.038
Neidleman, J., Luo, X., Frouard, J., Xie, G., Gill, G., Stein, E. S., McGregor, M., Ma, T., George, A. F., Kosters, A., Greene, W. C., Vasquez, J., Ghosn, E., Lee, S., & Roan, N. R. (2020). SARS-COV-2-specific T cells exhibit phenotypic features of helper function, lack of terminal differentiation, and high proliferation potential. Cell Reports Medicine, 1(6), 100081. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrm.2020.100081
Buchholz, V. R., & Busch, D. H. (2019). Back to the future: Effector fate during T cell exhaustion. Immunity, 51(6), 970–972. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2019.11.007
Zhao, J., Zhao, J., Mangalam, A. K., Channappanavar, R., Fett, C., Meyerholz, D. K., Agnihothram, S., Baric, R. S., David, C. S., & Perlman, S. (2016). Airway memory CD4 + T cells mediate protective immunity against emerging respiratory coronaviruses. Immunity, 44(6), 1379–1391. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2016.05.006
Chen, S., Guan, F., Candotti, F., Benlagha, K., Camara, N. O., Herrada, A. A., James, L. K., Lei, J., Miller, H., Kubo, M., Ning, Q., & Liu, C. (2022). The role of B cells in COVID-19 infection and Vaccination. Frontiers in Immunology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.988536
Kim, W., Zhou, J. Q., Horvath, S. C., Schmitz, A. J., Sturtz, A. J., Lei, T., Liu, Z., Kalaidina, E., Thapa, M., Alsoussi, W. B., Haile, A., Klebert, M. K., Suessen, T., Parra-Rodriguez, L., Mudd, P. A., Whelan, S. P., Middleton, W. D., Teefey, S. A., Pusic, I., … Ellebedy, A. H. (2022). Germinal centre-driven maturation of B cell response to mrna vaccination. Nature, 604(7904), 141–145. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04527-1
Kaneko, N., Kuo, H.-H., Boucau, J., Farmer, J. R., Allard-Chamard, H., Mahajan, V. S., Piechocka-Trocha, A., Lefteri, K., Osborn, M., Bals, J., Bartsch, Y. C., Bonheur, N., Caradonna, T. M., Chevalier, J., Chowdhury, F., Diefenbach, T. J., Einkauf, K., Fallon, J., Feldman, J., … Pillai, S. (2020). Loss of BCL-6-expressing T follicular helper cells and germinal centers in COVID-19. Cell, 183(1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2020.08.025
sho, B., Abe, K. T., Zuo, M., Jamal, A. J., Rathod, B., Wang, J. H., Li, Z., Chao, G., Rojas, O. L., Bang, Y. M., Pu, A., Christie-Holmes, N., Gervais, C., Ceccarelli, D., Samavarchi-Tehrani, P., Guvenc, F., Budylowski, P., Li, A., Paterson, A., … Gingras, A.-C. (2020). Persistence of serum and saliva antibody responses to SARS-COV-2 spike antigens in COVID-19 patients. Science Immunology, 5(52). https://doi.org/10.1126/sciimmunol.abe5511
Cervia, C., Nilsson, J., Zurbuchen, Y., Valaperti, A., Schreiner, J., Wolfensberger, A., Raeber, M. E., Adamo, S., Weigang, S., Emmenegger, M., Hasler, S., Bosshard, P. P., De Cecco, E., Bächli, E., Rudiger, A., Stüssi-Helbling, M., Huber, L. C., Zinkernagel, A. S., Schaer, D. J., … Boyman, O. (2021). Systemic and mucosal antibody responses specific to SARS-COV-2 during mild versus severe covid-19. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 147(2). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2020.10.040
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
