Deterministic Transmission in Vehicular Networks: A Comprehensive Review of Architectures, Technologies, and Applications

Baofeng Ji; Yifan Liu; Hui Zhang; Qianyang Hu; Saibing Wang

doi:10.54097/6rx6c211

Authors

Baofeng Ji
Yifan Liu
Hui Zhang
Qianyang Hu
Saibing Wang

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.54097/6rx6c211

Keywords:

Deterministic Transmission, Vehicular Networks, Time-Sensitive Networking, V2X Communication, Data Distribution Service, Automotive Ethernet, Intelligent Connected Vehicles

Abstract

This paper presents a comprehensive review of deterministic transmission technologies in vehicular networks, addressing the stringent communication requirements of modern Intelligent Connected Vehicles (ICVs). As automotive functions evolve towards advanced autonomous driving and complex Cooperative Intelligent Transport Systems (C-ITS), guaranteeing bounded latency, minimal jitter, and ultra-high reliability across both in-vehicle and vehicle-to-everything (V2X) networks becomes critical. We analyze the evolution of IoV technology architectures, highlighting the transition from DSRC to 5G-V2X, and review classical in-vehicle bus systems alongside the paradigm shift towards Automotive Ethernet. Key enabling technologies for deterministic communication, particularly Time-Sensitive Networking (TSN), Data Distribution Service (DDS), and intelligent resource scheduling optimization, are discussed in detail. Furthermore, the paper explores the architectures for wired-wireless convergence to achieve end-to-end determinism. Finally, the review concludes with application scenarios such as autonomous driving, emphasizing ongoing challenges and future research directions in constructing resilient and deterministic vehicular communication ecosystems.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

[1] Ni, Yuanzhi, Zhao, Chengcheng, Cai, Lin, “Hybrid RSU management in cybertwin-IoV for temporal and spatial service coverage,” IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 71, no. 5, pp. 4596–4606, 2021.

[2] Karoui, Mouna, Freitas, Antonio, Chalhoub, Gerard, “Performance comparison between LTE-V2X and ITS-G5 under realistic urban scenarios,” in 2020 IEEE 91st vehicular technology conference (VTC2020-spring), pp. 1–7, 2020.

[3] Moradi-Pari, Ehsan, Tian, Danyang, Bahramgiri, Mojtaba, Rajab, Samer, Bai, Sue, “DSRC versus LTE-V2X: Empirical performance analysis of direct vehicular communication technologies,” IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 4889–4903, 2023.

[4] , “A tutorial on 5G NR V2X communications,” IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 1972–2026, 2021.

[5] Saad, Malik Muhammad, Tariq, Muhammad Ashar, Seo, Junho, Kim, Dongkyun, “An overview of 3GPP release 17 & 18 advancements in the context of V2X technology,” in 2023 International Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Information and Communication (ICAIIC), pp. 057–062, 2023.

[6] Rasheed, Iftikhar, Hu, Fei, “Intelligent super-fast Vehicle-to-Everything 5G communications with predictive switching between mmWave and THz links,” Vehicular Communications, vol. 27, pp. 100303, 2021.

[7] Martinez, Victor MG, Campelo, Divanilson R, Ribeiro, Moises RN, “Sustainable intelligent transportation systems via digital twins: A contextualized survey,” IEEE Open Journal of Intelligent Transportation Systems, 2025.

[8] Chen, Shanzhi, Wang, Hucheng, Shi, Yan, Zhao, Li, Hu, Jinling, Xu, Hui, Song, Yaqin, “S&C-V2X: Integrated Satellite-Cellular V2X Networks—Evolution of C-V2X from 5G to 6G,” IEEE Communications Magazine, vol. 64, no. 1, pp. 175–181, 2025.

[9] Deng, Jikang, Hasan, S Fizza, Zhou, Hui, Al-Ahmadi, Saad, Alouini, Mohamed-Slim, Da Costa, Daniel B, “AI-Native Open RAN for Non-Terrestrial Networks: An Overview,” IEEE Open Journal of the Communications Society, 2026.

[10] Kim, Haeri, Yoo, Wonsuk, Ha, Seoncheol, Chung, Jong-Moon, “In-vehicle network average response time analysis for CAN-FD and automotive ethernet,” IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, vol. 72, no. 6, pp. 6916–6932, 2023.

[11] Prerana, S, Reddy, Niranjan N, Varghese, Susan G, Sabhahit, Jayalakshmi N, “Review on communication technologies used in electric vehicles,” in 2024 IEEE International Conference on Distributed Computing, VLSI, Electrical Circuits and Robotics (DISCOVER), pp. 445–451, 2024.

[12] Liang, Qin, Lai, Xinghao, Li, Zhihao, Sheng, Weijie, Sun, Lin, Cai, Yi, Shen, Gangxiang, Liu, Gordon Ning, “Optical communications in autonomous driving vehicles: requirements, challenges, and opportunities,” Journal of Lightwave Technology, vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 1690–1699, 2025.

[13] Porter, Donovan, “100BASE-T1 Ethernet: the evolution of automotive networking,” Texas Instruments, Techn. Ber, vol. 2, 2018.

[14] Zhu, Hailong, Zhou, Wei, Li, Zhiheng, Li, Li, Huang, Tao, “Requirements-driven automotive electrical/electronic architecture: A survey and prospective trends,” Ieee Access, vol. 9, pp. 100096–100112, 2021.

[15] Teixeira, Pedro Veloso, Raposo, Duarte, Lopes, Rui, Sargento, Susana, “Deterministic and Reliable Software-Defined Vehicles: key building blocks, challenges, and vision,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2407.17287, 2024.

[16] Adil, Muhammad, Qiu, Tie, Zhou, Xiaobo, Javeed, Danish, Cao, Zhenrui, Wu, Dapeng Oliver, “Integrated 5G and Time Sensitive Networking for Emerging Applications: A Survey of Advancements, Challenges, and Future Directions,” IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, vol. 28, pp. 4016–4050, 2025.

[17] Li, Binqi, Zhu, Yuan, Yao, Xiangxi, Jiang, Chenming, Lu, Ke, Sun, Zhipeng, “Enabling deterministic transmission for DDS by leveraging IEEE 802.1 Qbv time-sensitive networking,” Computer Networks, vol. 261, pp. 111128, 2025.

[18] , “Experimentation on a wireless multi-domain deterministic network: The SLICES-Madrid approach,” IEEE Communications Magazine, vol. 63, no. 2, 2025.

[19] Yang, Chenyu, Kwong, Chiew Foong, Chieng, David, Kar, Pushpendu, Yau, Kok-Lim Alvin, Chen, Yusen, “Navigating the road ahead: A comprehensive survey of radio resource allocation for vehicle platooning in C-V2X communications,” IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 1326–1362, 2024.

[20] Li, Binqi, Zhu, Yuan, Yao, Xiangxi, Jiang, Chenming, Lu, Ke, Sun, Zhipeng, “Enabling deterministic transmission for DDS by leveraging IEEE 802.1 Qbv time-sensitive networking,” Computer Networks, vol. 261, pp. 111128, 2025.

[21] Luo, Feng, Ren, Yi, Yu, Yanhua, Li, Yunpeng, Liu, Qin, Zhang, Xiaobo, “A centralized discovery-based method for integrating data distribution service and time-sensitive networking for in-vehicle networks,” Ad Hoc Networks, vol. 178, pp. 103950, 2025.

[22] Quadar, Nordine, Chehri, Abdellah, Debaque, Benoit, Ahmed, Imran, Jeon, Gwangil, “Intrusion detection systems in automotive ethernet networks: challenges, opportunities and future research trends,” IEEE Internet of Things Magazine, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 62–68, 2024.

[23] Zhang, Yuren, Xiu, Jiapeng, “Real-time Automotive Ethernet Intrusion Detection Using Sliding Window-Based Temporal Convolutional Residual Attention Networks,” Journal of Information Security and Applications, vol. 94, pp. 104263, 2025.

[24] Martins, Rodrigo, Raposo, Duarte, Lopes, Rui, Rito, Pedro, Sargento, Susana, “Time synchronization in V2X communications,” in 2024 IEEE Vehicular Networking Conference (VNC), pp. 25–32, 2024.

[25] Musuroi, Adrian, Groza, Bogdan, “Secure time synchronization with submicrosecond accuracy in controller area networks,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, 2025.

[26] Patti, Gaetano, Bello, Lucia Lo, Leonardi, Luca, “Deadline-aware online scheduling of TSN flows for automotive applications,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 5774–5784, 2022.

[27] Goh, Sangho, Park, Chulsun, Jang, Hyuksoo, Park, Sungkwon, “Reducing Traffic Congestion caused by Frame Replication and Elimination for Reliability in zonal-based In-Vehicle Network Architecture,” in 2023 IEEE 6th International Conference on Knowledge Innovation and Invention (ICKII), pp. 100–103, 2023.

[28] Xie, Yong, Zeng, Gang, Kurachi, Ryo, Xiao, Fu, Takada, Hiroaki, Hu, Shiyan, “Timing analysis of CAN FD for security-aware automotive cyber-physical systems,” IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 3064–3078, 2022.

[29] Zheng, Pengyi, Rao, Yuan, “NetDDS: A Real-time Interactive Platform Based on the Publish-subscribe Mechanism,” Recent Advances in Electrical & Electronic Engineering (Formerly Recent Patents on Electrical & Electronic Engineering), vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 116–126, 2022.

[30] Peeroo, Kaleem, Popov, Peter, Stankovic, Vladimir, “A Survey on Experimental Performance Evaluation of Data Distribution Service (DDS) Implementations,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2310.16630, 2023.

[31] Luo, Feng, Ren, Yi, Yu, Yanhua, Li, Yunpeng, Liu, Qin, Zhang, Xiaobo, “A centralized discovery-based method for integrating data distribution service and time-sensitive networking for in-vehicle networks,” Ad Hoc Networks, vol. 178, pp. 103950, 2025.

[32] Feng, Ruyi, Dong, Haifeng, Wang, Qihui, “Research on the Application of DDS over TSN Technology in Aircraft Onboard Bus Network,” in Proceedings of the 2025 4th International Conference on Cryptography, Network Security and Communication Technology, pp. 164–169, 2025.

[33] Lu, Jingjing, Zhu, Hailong, Huang, Tao, Zhang, Huayu, Han, Guangsheng, “TS-DDS: Data distribution service (DDS) over in-vehicle time-sensitive networking (TSN) mechanism research,” in 2023 15th International Conference on Communication Software and Networks (ICCSN), pp. 30–36, 2023.

[34] Li, Binqi, Zhu, Yuan, Yao, Xiangxi, Jiang, Chenming, Lu, Ke, Sun, Zhipeng, “Enabling deterministic transmission for DDS by leveraging IEEE 802.1 Qbv time-sensitive networking,” Computer Networks, vol. 261, pp. 111128, 2025.

[35] Bhattacharjee, Sushmit, Alexandris, Konstantinos, Bauschert, Thomas, “Multi-domain TSN orchestration and management for large-scale industrial networks,” IEEE Transactions on Network and Service Management, vol. 21, no. 6, pp. 6480–6492, 2024.

[36] Seliem, Mohamed, Pesch, Dirk, “Software-defined time sensitive networks (SD-TSN) for industrial automation,” in 2022 14th International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Communication Networks (CICN), pp. 1–7, 2022.

[37] Walrand, Jean, “,” IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 1941–1953, .

[38] Lu, Yinzhi, Yang, Liu, Yang, Simon X., Hua, Qiaozhi, Sangaiah, Arun Kumar, Guo, Tan, Yu, Keping, “,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 1756–1767, .

[39] Debnath, Rubi, Barzegaran, Mohammadreza, Steinhorst, Sebastian, “,” .

[40] Tang, Lun, Pu, Zhoulin, Hou, Qiang, Fang, Dongxu, Chen, Qianbin, “,” IEEE Internet of Things Journal, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 1064–1080, .

[41] Yang, Dong, Zhang, Weiting, Ye, Qiang, Zhang, Chuan, Zhang, Ning, Huang, Chuan, Zhang, Hongke, Shen, Xuemin, “,” IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, vol. 23, no. 5, pp. 5162–5178, .

[42] Yang, Sijin, Zhuang, Lei, Zhang, Jianhui, Lan, Julong, Li, Bingkui, “,” IEEE Internet of Things Journal, vol. 11, no. 10, pp. 17402–17418, .

[43] Weng, Zu-Kai, Dat, Pham Tien, Kanno, Atsushi, Akahane, Kouichi, Kawanishi, Tetsuya, “Robust dual-wavelength DRoF link by quasi-2-bit 256-QAM OFDM with delta-sigma modulation,” Journal of Lightwave Technology, vol. 41, no. 23, pp. 7067–7074, 2023.

[44] Wang, Wenwei, Guo, Kaidi, Cao, Wanke, Zhu, Hailong, Nan, Jinrui, Yu, Lei, “Review of electrical and electronic architectures for autonomous vehicles: Topologies, networking and simulators,” Automotive Innovation, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 82–101, 2024.

[45] Quadar, Nordine, Chehri, Abdellah, Debaque, Benoit, Ahmed, Imran, Jeon, Gwangil, “Intrusion detection systems in automotive ethernet networks: challenges, opportunities and future research trends,” IEEE Internet of Things Magazine, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 62–68, 2024.

[46] Luo, Feng, Tong, Yingpeng, Ren, Yi, Yu, Yanhua, Liao, Zeqi, Li, Zhihao, Guo, Yi, “AVTP-Based CAN-TSN Scheduling Through Constructive Heuristic and Hybrid Iterative Greedy Algorithm for High-Load Automotive Network,” IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 2026.

[47] Andhare, Maithili, Dhoble, Parth Ramesh, Patil, Shraddha Anil, Naik, Ishwari Mahesh, Pathrikar, Vaibhav, “Implementation of Central Gateway with SOME/IP,” in 2025 International Conference on Computing Technologies (ICOCT), pp. 1–6, 2025.

[48] Oh, Sung Bhin, Do, Young Soo, Lim, Se Jeong, Choi, Hyeok Jun, Cha, Sung Keun, Jeon, Jae Wook, “Implementation of some/ip-can gateway in view of automotive service discovery,” in 2024 IEEE 33rd International Symposium on Industrial Electronics (ISIE), pp. 1–5, 2024.

[49] Choi, Hyeok Jun, Do, Young Soo, Oh, Sung Bhin, Lim, Se Jeong, Lim, Seong Hyeon, Jeon, Jae Wook, “Network Topologies for Zonal Architecture: Comparative Analysis and Design Considerations,” in 2025 International Technical Conference on Circuits/Systems, Computers, and Communications (ITC-CSCC), pp. 1–6, 2025.

[50] Guo, Zixuan, Koufos, Konstantinos, Dianati, Mehrdad, Woodman, Roger, “State-of-the-art virtualisation technologies for the centralised automotive E/E architecture,” Frontiers in Future Transportation, vol. 6, pp. 1519390, 2025.

[51] , “Virtualization Technology for Dependable Embedded Systems: A Survey for Transportation and Industrial Domains,” ACM Computing Surveys, vol. 58, no. 4, pp. 1–37, 2025.

[52] Mohammed, Saber F, Zhiwen, Pan, Al-Gunid, Haithm M, Qasem, Zeyad AH, “Optimizing end-to-end latency in C-V2X networks: A novel FD-RAN and MEC integration approach,” Vehicular Communications, vol. 55, pp. 100955, 2025.

[53] Wael, Chaeriah Bin Ali, Dogheche, El Hadj, Armi, Nasrullah, Subekti, Agus, Dayoub, Iyad, “Leveraging 3GPP Features and Optimization Techniques for 5G NR-V2X Resource Allocation: A Survey,” IEEE Open Journal of Intelligent Transportation Systems, 2025.

[54] Adil, Muhammad, Qiu, Tie, Zhou, Xiaobo, Javeed, Danish, Cao, Zhenrui, Wu, Dapeng Oliver, “Integrated 5G and Time Sensitive Networking for Emerging Applications: A Survey of Advancements, Challenges, and Future Directions,” IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, vol. 28, pp. 4016–4050, 2025.

[55] Ali, Moin, Nauman, Ali, Jamshed, Muhammad Ali, Kim, Su Min, Kim, Junsu, “Vehicles-to-Everything Standardization, Services and Enhancements for Intelligent Transportation Systems,” IEEE Communications Standards Magazine, 2025.

[56] Tian, Wenbin, Gu, Chaojie, Guo, Miao, He, Shibo, Kang, Jiawen, Niyato, Dusit, Chen, Jiming, “Large-scale deterministic networks: Architecture, enabling technologies, case study, and future directions,” IEEE Network, vol. 38, no. 4, pp. 284–291, 2024.

[57] Zhang, Heng, Li, Yehui, Li, Zheng, “6-D spatial localization of wireless magnetically actuated capsule endoscopes based on the fusion of hall sensor array and IMU,” IEEE Sensors Journal, vol. 22, no. 13, pp. 13424–13433, 2022.

[58] , “Identifying challenges in remote driving,” in International Conference on Smart Cities and Green ICT Systems, pp. 146–166, 2023.

[59] Cai, Guoqiang, Fan, Bo, Dong, Yiwei, Li, Tongfei, Wu, Yuan, Zhang, Yan, “Task-efficiency oriented V2X communications: Digital twin meets mobile edge computing,” IEEE Wireless Communications, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 149–155, 2023.

[60] Rasouli, Nayereh, Klein, Cristian, Elmroth, Erik, “Resource management for mission-critical applications in edge computing: systematic review on recent research and open issues,” ACM Computing Surveys, vol. 58, no. 3, pp. 1–37, 2025.

[61] Paul, Anal, Singh, Keshav, “Large AI Model Driven Quantum-Enhanced Transformer-VQC Federated DRL for Privacy Preservation in Vehicular Networks,” IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, 2025.

[62] Ikeda, Teppei, Yano, Yusuke, Ichikawa, Koji, Wada, Osami, Wang, Jianqing, “Experimental Study on the Effect of Grounding Conditions of DUT and Link-Partner of Automotive Ethernet 100BASE-T1 on BCI Test,” in 2025 International Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility–EMC Europe, pp. 637–642, 2025.

[63] Adil, Muhammad, Qiu, Tie, Zhou, Xiaobo, Javeed, Danish, Cao, Zhenrui, Wu, Dapeng Oliver, “Integrated 5G and Time Sensitive Networking for Emerging Applications: A Survey of Advancements, Challenges, and Future Directions,” IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, vol. 28, pp. 4016–4050, 2025.

[64] Omheni, Nouri, Koubaa, Hend, Zarai, Faouzi, “Artificial intelligence for 5G and 6G networks: A taxonomy-based survey of applications, trends, and challenges,” Technologies, vol. 13, no. 12, pp. 559, 2025.

[65] Rella, Bhanu Prakash Reddy, Asundi, Satyanarayana, Kumawat, Renu, Pujari, Tejaskumar Dattatray, Kaushik, Keshav, Arora, Amandeep Singh, “AI-Driven Network Optimization for Real-Time Financial Data Streaming in High-Frequency Trading Systems,” in 2025 4th OPJU International Technology Conference (OTCON) on Smart Computing for Innovation and Advancement in Industry 5.0, pp. 1–6, 2025.