Investigating Agricultural Tractor Performance at High Altitudes: Challenges and Solutions
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.54097/g4z9az61Keywords:
Agricultural Tractor, Performance, High Altitudes, Mount Bamboutos, Cameroon, Massey Ferguson(MF) 385.Abstract
This study investigates the performance challenges of the Massey Ferguson (MF) 385 2WD tractor in high-altitude regions like Mount Bamboutos, Cameroon, where reduced air density and oxygen availability impair engine efficiency, leading to a 20-40% reduction in tractive force. Through a comprehensive literature review, the study evaluates active (engine-focused) and passive (drivetrain-focused) solutions to enhance tractor performance, prioritizing cost-effectiveness, simplicity, and sustainability for smallholder farmers. Unsuitable solutions, such as turbocharging and engine replacement, are deemed impractical due to high costs and complexity. Promising solutions include optimizing fuel injection timing and quantity, modifying transmission and differential gear ratios, and adjusting tire size and pressure, which improve torque, traction, and fuel efficiency with minimal modifications. The findings recommend low-cost, passive drivetrain interventions supported by training and subsidies to enhance agricultural productivity and livelihoods in highland areas. These insights inform tractor design and mechanization strategies for similar mountainous regions globally.
Downloads
References
[1] Mouafo, P. T., Emmanuel, O. N. B., Yacoubou, B., & Danmou, B. N. M. (2024). Public policies and the future of agriculture in Cameroon: a case study of the “Tree Year Special Youth Plan.” Heliyon, 10(14), e34803. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e34803
[2] Keubeng, I. G., Muluh, G. A., & Kemezang, V. C. (2025). Controlling agricultural product price volatility: An empirical analysis from Cameroon. Regional Sustainability, 6(2), 100215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.regsus.2025.100215
[3] Tabe-Ojong, M. P. J., Alamsyah, Z., & Sibhatu, K. T. (2023). Oil palm expansion, food security and diets: Comparative evidence from Cameroon and Indonesia. Journal of Cleaner Production, 418, 138085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.138085.
[4] Fonjong, L., Fombe, L., & Sama-Lang, I. (2012). The paradox of gender discrimination in land ownership and women’s contribution to poverty reduction in Anglophone Cameroon. GeoJournal, 78(3), 575–589. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-012-9452-z.
[5] Feugue Kenfack J, Tsalefac M, Kongnso M E. Perception of climate variability along the slopes of Mount Bamboutos, West Cameroon[J]. International Journal of Social, Political and Economic Research, 2020, 7(3): 687-707.
[6] Ngimdoh M M, Tchekote H, Achamoh V N. Exploratory study on agricultural practices on the Bamboutos Mountains[J]. International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology, 2020, 5(10): 1-17.
[7] Nishi, M., & Subramanian, S. M. (2023). Ecosystem Restoration Through Managing Socio-ecological Production Landscapes and Seascapes (SEPLS) (p. 288). Springer Nature.
[8] Tchatchoua, D. T., Hamadou, O., Maloum, M., Carlson, J. E., & Madi, O. P. (2023). Influence of environmental conditions on Faidherbia albida parklands in the Sudano Sahelian zone of Cameroon. Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity, 7(4), 101-116.
[9] Bello, R. S. (2012). Farm Tractor Systems: Operations and Maintenance. Pub by Createspace 7290 B. Investment Drive Charl US.
[10] Kbebsii, N. M., Angwafo, T. E., & Egwu, B. M. (2024). Sustainable agriculture and livelihood outcomes: evidence from farmers organizations in Tubah sub-division, Cameroon. International Journal of Agricultural Extension, 12(1), 107-117.
[11] Mouafo, S. T., Ngoune, N. F., Njila, R. N., & Ndongo, B. (2025). Small-Scale Irrigation in the Highlands of Western Cameroon: A Diagnostic Study of the Southern Slope of the Bamboutos Mountains. Agricultural Sciences, 16(2), 256-279..
[12] Lance, D. L., Goodfellow, C. L., Williams, J., Bunting, W., Sakata, I., Yoshida, K., ... & Kitano, K. (2009). The impact of diesel and biodiesel fuel composition on a Euro V HSDI engine with advanced DPNR emissions control. SAE International Journal of Fuels and Lubricants, 2(1), 885-894.
[13] Renius, K. T. (2020). Fundamentals of tractor design (pp. 32-35). Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
[14] Sujesh, G., & Ramesh, S. (2018). Modeling and control of diesel engines: A systematic review. Alexandria engineering journal, 57(4), 4033-4048.
[15] Goering, C. E., Stone, M. L., Smith, D. W., & Turnquist, P. K. (2003). Traction and transport devices. In Off-road vehicle engineering principles (p. 351). American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers.
[16] Jia, C., Qiao, W., & Qu, L. (2018). Modeling and control of hybrid electric vehicles: A case study for agricultural tractors. 2021 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference (VPPC), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/vppc.2018.8604997.
[17] Zheng, B., Chen, J. Y., Song, Z., Mao, E., Zhou, Q., Luo, Z., & Liu, K. (2022). Prediction and optimization of emission in an agricultural harvest engine with biodiesel-diesel blends by a method of ANN and CMA-ES. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 197, 106903.
[18] Nikdel, N., & Kouhi, A. (2025). Mitigating tractor vibrations with a robust adaptive fractional Controller: Design and Validation. Expert Systems with Applications, 275, 127119.
[19] Marzbani, H., Vo, D. Q., Khazaei, A., Fard, M., & Jazar, R. N. (2017). Transient and steady-state rotation centre of vehicle dynamics. International Journal of Nonlinear Dynamics and Control, 1(1), 97-113.
[20] Liu, S., & Zhang, Y. (2020). Research on the integrated intercooler intake system of turbocharged diesel engine. International Journal of Automotive Technology, 21, 339-349.
[21] Naser, L., Ilir, D., & Shpetim, L. (2016). Modelling and simulation of the turbocharged diesel engine with intercooler. IFAC-PapersOnLine, 49(29), 237-242.
[22] Shen, J., Qin, J., & Yao, M. (2003). Turbocharged diesel/CNG dual-fuel engines with intercooler: combustion, emissions and performance (No. 2003-01-3082). SAE Technical Paper.
[23] Kahveci, N. E., Impram, S. T., & Genc, A. U. (2014, June). Boost pressure control for a large diesel engine with turbocharger. In 2014 American Control Conference (pp. 2108-2113). IEEE.
[24] Liu, S., & Zhang, Y. (2020). Research on the integrated intercooler intake system of turbocharged diesel engine. International Journal of Automotive Technology, 21, 339-349.
[25] Han, S., Kim, J., & Bae, C. (2014). Effect of air–fuel mixing quality on characteristics of conventional and low temperature diesel combustion. Applied Energy, 119, 454-466.
[26] Akal, D., & Selvi, İ. (2023). Effects of clogged air filter on power, torque, fuel consumption and emissions of diesel engines in tractors. Petroleum Science and Technology, 41(24), 2419-2433.
[27] Lovarelli, D., Fiala, M., & Larsson, G. (2018). Fuel consumption and exhaust emissions during on-field tractor activity: A possible improving strategy for the environmental load of agricultural mechanisation. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 151, 238-248.
[28] Agarwal, A. K., Srivastava, D. K., Dhar, A., Maurya, R. K., Shukla, P. C., & Singh, A. P. (2013). Effect of fuel injection timing and pressure on combustion, emissions and performance characteristics of a single cylinder diesel engine. Fuel, 111, 374-383.
[29] He, L., Gong, W., & Zhao, J. (2025). Research on fuel injection quantity fluctuation characteristics and optimization improvement of dual-fuel engines. Energy, 324, 135953.
[30] Zuo, Q., Tang, Y., Zhu, G., Wei, K., Guan, Q., Zhang, B., & Shen, Z. (2021). Investigations on the soot combustion performance enhancement of a catalytic gasoline particulate filter in equilibrium state for reducing the BSFC of gasoline direct injection engine. Fuel, 284, 119032.
[31] Gray, N., O'Shea, R., Smyth, B., Lens, P. N., & Murphy, J. D. (2022). What is the energy balance of electrofuels produced through power-to-fuel integration with biogas facilities?. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 155, 111886.
[32] Almaleki, A., Hellier, P., Ladommatos, N., Talibi, M., & Khan, Z. (2023). Effects of fuel composition at varying air-fuel ratio on knock resistance during spark-ignition combustion. Fuel, 344, 128015.
[33] Lamani V T, Yadav A K, Kumar G N. CFD simulation of a common rail diesel engine with biobutanol-diesel blends for various injection timings[C]//Biofuels and Bioenergy (BICE2016) International Conference. Bhopal: Springer International Publishing, 2017.
[34] Shang, W., Li, H., Yang, K., Qi, H., & Nishida, K. (2025). Effect of split injection ratio on the transient soot evolution of 2D cavity impinging spray combustion under low oxygen concentration. Chemical Engineering Journal, 510, 161779.
[35] Liu, J., Li, Y., Zhang, C., & Liu, Z. (2022). The effect of high altitude environment on diesel engine performance: Comparison of engine operations in Hangzhou, Kunming and Lhasa cities. Chemosphere, 309, 136621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136621.
[36] Hou, Y., Wang, J., Lei, J., & Chen, L. (2025). Optimization design of combustion chamber for a non-road diesel engine in high-altitude region. Case Studies in Thermal Engineering, 68, 105943.
[37] Siddique S A, Nataraj T S C. Effect of modified design on engine fuel efficiency[J]. International Journal of Engineering Research and Application, 2016, 6(9, Part 2): 19-27.
[38] Kateris, D., Gravalos, I., Gialamas, T., Xyradakis, P., & Moshou, D. (2016). A new approach to fault diagnosis in agricultural tractor mechanical gearbox. A-NEW-APPROACH-TO-FAULT-DIAGNOSIS-IN-AGRICULTURAL-Kateris-Gravalos/91731ee91fff432f5234076af6e5f8b6f8930d3c.
[39] Li, B., Pan, J., Li, Y., Ni, K., Huang, W., Jiang, H., & Liu, F. (2023). Optimization method of speed ratio for power-shift transmission of agricultural tractor. Machines, 11(4), 438.
[40] Ranjit P S, et al. Studies on influence of turbocharger on performance enhancement and reduction in emissions of an IDI CI engine[J]. Global Journal of Research Analysis, 2014, 1(21): 239-248.
[41] Ince, E., & Güler, M. A. (2020). On the advantages of the new power-split infinitely variable transmission over conventional mechanical transmissions based on fuel consumption analysis. Journal of Cleaner Production, 244, 118795.
[42] Hashemi, S. M., Tarahomi, M., & Houshyar, M. (2022). Optimization of car gearbox conversion ratios based on providing maximum traction in different gears. The Journal of Engine Research, 66(66), 36-45.
[43] Ersarı, M., & Gündoğdu, M. (2024). Tractor Transmission Gear Ratio Optimization. ENGINEERING PERSPECTIVE, 95.
[44] Hao, L., Wang, C., Yin, H., Hao, C., Wang, H., Tan, J., ... & Ge, Y. (2019). Model-based estimation of light-duty vehicle fuel economy at high altitude. Advances in Mechanical Engineering, 11(11), 1687814019886252.
[45] Kim, Y. S., Kim, W. S., Baek, S. Y., Baek, S. M., Kim, Y. J., Lee, S. D., & Kim, Y. J. (2020). Analysis of tillage depth and gear selection for mechanical load and fuel efficiency of an agricultural tractor using an agricultural field measuring system. Sensors, 20(9), 2450.
[46] Becker, C., & Els, S. (2022). Agricultural tyre stiffness change as a function of tyre wear. Journal of Terramechanics, 102, 1-15.
[47] Jang, M. K., Hwang, S. J., Kim, J. H., & Nam, J. S. (2022). Overturning and rollover characteristics of a tractor through dynamic simulations: Effect of slope angle and obstacles on a hard surface. Biosystems engineering, 219, 11-24.
[48] Janulevičius, A., & Damanauskas, V. (2022). Prediction of tractor drive tire slippage under different inflation pressures. Journal of Terramechanics, 101, 23-31.
[49] Vasantharaj, A., Karuppusamy, S. A., Nandhagopal, N., & Pillai, A. P. V. (2023). A low-cost in-tire-pressure monitoring SoC using integer/floating-point type convolutional neural network inference engine. Microprocessors and Microsystems, 98, 104771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpro.2023.104771
[50] Pusty, T., Więckowski, D., Dębowski, A., Wesołowski, M., & Barta, D. (2025). Experimental study of the effect of tire pressure and cab height of a Tractor-Trailer driver on driving comfort. Transport and Telecommunication Journal, 26(2), 175–184. https://doi.org/10.2478/ttj-2025-0014
[51] Truflyak, E. (2024). Intelligent technology for determining the optimal air pressure in the tires of agricultural tractor wheels. Agroinženeriâ, 2, 13–19.https://doi.org/10.26897/2687-1149-2024-2-13-19
[52] Čiplienė, A., Gurevičius, P., Janulevičius, A., & Damanauskas, V. (2019). Experimental validation of tyre inflation pressure model to reduce fuel consumption during soil tillage. Biosystems Engineering, 186, 45–59.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2019.06.023
[53] Da Silva, J. P. R., De Souza, C. M. A., Orlando, R. C., Barbosa, J. A., & Bahia, T. R. C. T. (2024). Simulated performance of a tractor equipped with two types of tyre under two levels of soil moisture. Ciência Agronômica/Revista Ciência Agronômica, 56, 01–12. https://doi.org/10.5935/1806-6690.20250022.
[54] Pedrero, J. I., Sánchez, M. B., & Pleguezuelos, M. (2024). Analytical model of meshing stiffness, load sharing, and transmission error for internal spur gears with profile modification. Mechanism and Machine Theory, 197, 105650. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2024.105650.
[55] Likhanov, V. A., & Lopatin, O. P. (2023). Research of the combustion process in a tractor diesel engine when operating on alcohol and vegetable oil. Tractors and Agricultural Machinery, 90(3), 191–200. https://doi.org/10.17816/0321-4443-320931
[56] Liu, J., Li, Y., Zhang, C., & Liu, Z. (2022). The effect of high altitude environment on diesel engine performance: Comparison of engine operations in Hangzhou, Kunming and Lhasa cities. Chemosphere, 309, 136621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136621
[57] Neto, L. S., Zimmermann, G. G., Jasper, S. P., Savi, D., & Sobenko, L. R. (2022). ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF AGRICULTURAL TRACTORS EQUIPPED WITH CONTINUOUSLY VARIABLE AND FULL POWERSHIFT TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS. Engenharia Agrícola, 42(1). https://doi.org/10.1590/1809-4430-eng.agric.v42n1e20210052/2022
[58] Wan, M., Huang, F., Shen, L., & Lei, J. (2023). Experimental investigation on effects of fuel injection and intake parameters on combustion and performance of a turbocharged diesel engine at different altitudes. Frontiers in Energy Research, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2022.1090948
[59] [Jia, G., Gao, S., Shu, X., Ren, B., Zhang, B., Ma, G., Zhang, J., Liu, H., & Li, D. (2024). Multi-objective optimization of emission parameters of a diesel engine using oxygenated fuel and pilot injection strategy based on RSM-NSGA III. Energy, 293, 130661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2024.130661
[60] Gupta, Pankaj & L., Kapuriya & Yadav, Dr. (2018). Tractor air intake pressure use in pneumatic planter.
[61] Velmurugan, K., Arunprasad, J., & Thirugnanasambantham, R. (2020). Agricultural tractor engine combustion in dual-fuel mode: Optimization of pilot fuel injection. Materials Today Proceedings, 33, 3271–3276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.04.666
[62] Ersarı, M. (2024). Tractor Transmission Gear Ratio Optimization. Engineering Perspective, 3(3), 95–99. https://doi.org/10.29228/eng.pers.76998
[63] Kwon, S., Jeong, J., Kim, D., & Lim, W. (2024). A study on the determination method of the gear reduction ratio for electric trains considering drive shaft relative damage and motor efficiency. Applied Sciences, 14(22), 10472. https://doi.org/10.3390/app142210472
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Academic Journal of Science and Technology
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
